Human Sexuality Essay Example for Free

Human Sexuality Essay William and Jessie both 23 years old have been dating for 3 years. They plan to get married in 2 years when they finish with graduate school. About three months ago William had an unplanned and alcohol induced intercourse with a colleague from work. The couple are in counseling and working on issues of trust and communication. Recently, they have started having sexual intercourse. Jessie says she is unable to climax like in the past. William says he is doing everything the same and thinks she still blames him. Looking at William and Jessie’s case, I believe that the possible societal and gender influences related to William’s and Jessie’s concerns are the male and female sexual scripts. According to Strong, DeVault, Sayad and Yarber (2008), â€Å"Sexual Scripts refers to the acts, rules, and expectations associated with a particular role† (p. 143). All humans are sexual beings; however we all are diverse in terms of our sexual definitions and script expectations. Sexual scripts are not innate, yet they are learned through culture and socialization (Strong et al. 2008). There are as many distinctive sexual scripts as there are people, nonetheless some of these scripts have common themes and can be recognized as a shared blueprint or trend in the larger society. Some male scripts that are relatable to Williams’s concerns are: Performance is a thing that counts. A man always wants sex and is ready for it and, sexual intercourse leads to orgasm. Society has this idea that is embedded in many people that sex to men is something to be accomplished (Strong et al. 2008). It is important for us to notice that in Williams situation, he is feeling like â€Å"less of a man†, in other words, his ego is bruised, because he cannot make Jessie climax. Additionally, there are sexual scripts allotted to women as well. Some female scripts relatable to Jessie’s concerns are: â€Å"The traditional male sexual scripts focuses on sex over feelings, the traditional female sexual script focuses on feelings over sex, on love over passion† (p. 41). Jessie apparently has issues during sex because she can’t get over the thought of Williams having sexual contact with another woman, especially when William is supposed become Jessie’s future husband. The sexual script that relates to this issue is that the woman does not want to have sex, sex is uncomfortable for her or not pleasurable for her. However due to female sexual scripts, women should not talk about sex (Strong et al. , 2008). Sexual scripts are similar to traditional gender roles; society holds men and women accountable for the roles and expectations that have been set for them and if we fail to live up to them, then we are failures at our gender. Moreover, there are indeed biological and psychological components of William and Jessie’s case. Starting with William, he can’t achieve to make Jessie Climax. Psychological causes include trust and communication related stress and anxiety, because he too busy trying to gain Jesse’s trust. Because of this William is most likely concerned about his sexual performance, trust issues and the guilt of having sexual intoxicate intercourse with his work colleague. For women in particular, emotional closeness is a main component in sexual desire (Strong et al. , 2008) and because William cheated with a colleague, she perhaps could have grown psychologically distant. As stated by Strong et al. (2008), â€Å"Desire is the psychological component of sexual arousal† (p. 92). According to the Masters and Johnson’s four-phrase model of sexual response, Kaplan’s tri-phasic model of sexual response and Loulan’s sexual response model, they all include desire and excitement as key elements to sexual response and pleasure and without these two elements, a person cannot truly experience the true satisfaction of sexual intercourse and an orgasm (Strong et al. , 2008). In relation to this case the developmental concerns related to the early adulthood stage according to Strong et al. 2008) are the following: Integrating love and sex, forging intimacy and making commitments. Integrating love and sex was not integrated when it comes to Williams’s infidelity. William was more so thinking with his penis rather than thinking about the love of his life Jessie. As the female, Jessie thinks more with her heart and values the love for William. The thought of betrayal from William, may possibly be disheartening and could hinder Jessie from climaxi ng during intimacy. In Jessie’s mind, loving William and having that solid connection with him was important to her. Furthermore this developmental concern strongly compares to the male sexual script with thoughts of sex over feelings, while the woman’s thoughts consist of feelings over sex. The key to integrating love and sex was missing because of Williams’s infidelity. Therefore uniting the two will take a longer process to connect. Forging intimacy and making commitments plays an integral part in the developmental concerns in this case as well. According to Strong et al. (2008) as a relationship become more meaningful, the degree of intimacy and interdependence increases. As adults become more intimate, most desire to develop their ability to make commitments. In relation to William and Jesse they are in a meaningful relationship, they were planning to get married and spend the rest of their lives with one another, before the infidelity occurred. It is my assumption the intimacy was on a higher level but after the infidelity occurred the intimacy decreased and the trust and communication issues began to form. During the early adulthood stage young adults begin to attend college and students began to meet lots of people in their age bracket. There will be opportunities during college where students attend plenty of social gatherings (frat/sororities houses and parties) and majority of the time alcohol and drugs are involved as well as risky sexual activities. Strong et al (2008) strongly believes that among college students, the use of alcohol is associated with an increased risk of unwanted intercourse, sexual violence and STDS. Since Jesse and William are in the early adulthood stage, it is a strong possibility William wants to venture out in a since before he gets married. Maybe he feels pressured and tied down to Jessie. Lastly, infidelity is common amongst the early adulthood population. Research by McAnaulty and Brineman (2007), states that 41% of the students identified having sexual intercourse with a person other than ones primary partner as constituting being unfaithful. More students (57%) identified dating/spending time with another as unfaithfulness. Infidelity can greatly affect committed relationships, because it could cause a lack of communication and trust worthiness. When relationships are broken, a lot of emotions occur such as lack of sleep, a decrease in appetite, anxiety and constant crying in some cases.

Maintain international peace and security

Maintain international peace and security The United Nations, the UN is an international organization established to maintain and strengthen international peace and security, development cooperation between States. The basis of its activities and structure developed during the Second World War, leading participants-Hitler coalition. The name â€Å"United Nations† was first used in the United Nations Declaration, signed on Jan. 1, 1942. The UN Charter was adopted at the San Francisco Conference, held from April to June 1945 and signed on June 26, 1945 representatives of 51 States. Date of entry into force of the Charter (24 October) is celebrated as United Nations Day. The organization occupies a central place as the chief deliberative, policymaking and representative organ. The General Assembly shall consider the principles of cooperation in the field of international peace and security; elects non-permanent UN Security Council members, members of the Economic and Social Council, on the recommendation of the Security Council appointed UN Secretary-General, in conjunction with the Security Council elects the members of the International Court of Justice, coordinates international cooperation in the economic social, cultural and humanitarian spheres; exercise other powers stipulated in the UN Charter. Security Council. Primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security; its decisions are expected to obey all the UN members. The five permanent Security Council members (Russia, USA, Britain, France and China) have veto power. The Security Council consists of 15 members: five members permanent (USA, UK, France, Russia and China), the remaining ten members (in the terminology of the Constitution â€Å"no standing†) were elected to the Council in accordance with the procedure stipulated by the Charter (paragraph 2 Article 23). Secretariat this is an international staff working institutions around the world and perform a variety of daily activities of the Organization. It serves the other principal organs of the United Nations adopted and implemented their programs and policies. Secretariat units are located at UN Headquarters in New York and elsewhere in the Headquarters of the UN bodies, the largest of which are the United Nations Office at Geneva and Vienna. At the head of the Secretariat is the Secretary-General who is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of 5 years, renewable for another term. Currently, there is a gentlemans agreement that a citizen of the country a permanent member of the UN Security Council can not be the UN Secretary General. An important instrument for maintaining international peace and security are the UN peacekeeping operations. Their activity is determined by a number of General Assembly resolutions adopted in accordance with the Charter of the Organization. Implementation of the UN peacekeeping operation can be expressed as: Investigation of incidents and negotiations with the warring parties with a view to reconciliation; Verifying compliance with the ceasefire; Contributing to the maintenance of law and order; The provision of humanitarian assistance; Monitoring the situation. Human rights. On 10 December 1948 UN General Assembly adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and then recommended that all Member States to publish the text of the Declaration by the â€Å"spread, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without any distinction based on the political status of countries or territories.† Humanitarian aid. Humanitarian disasters can occur anywhere and at any time. Whatever the cause flood, drought, earthquake or conflict they always lead to deaths, displacement, loss of the ability of communities on their own to ensure their existence and bring immense suffering. In countries which have for a long time been exposed to natural disasters or recovering from conflict, humanitarian aid is increasingly seen as one element of an overall effort to ensure that peace-building, along with the development of political and financial support. Perhaps the most dramatic natural disaster in recent years has caused a tsunami in the Indian Ocean earthquake. Early in the morning Sunday, December 26, 2004, off the west coast of northern Sumatra occurred strong earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale, which resulted in a huge tsunami, which reached a height of 10 meters and move along the surface of the Indian Ocean at a speed of 500 kilometers per hour. The tsunami hit the coastal areas in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Maldives, Myanmar, the Seychelles and Somalia. It has been estimated that as of April 2005 more than 217 thousand people died, 51 thousand missing and more than half a million people homeless. Organization of the United Nations began to take measures immediately, trying to satisfy a range of humanitarian needs, including in areas such as agriculture, coordination and support services, economic recovery and infrastructure, education, family housing and consumer goods, food, health , measures related to mine clearance, protection of human rights and the rule of law, security and water and sanitation. For this purpose, 5 January 2005 was made â€Å"urgent appeal† to the mobilization of 977 million dollars to fund critical of relief efforts undertaken by some 40 United Nations agencies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). However, despite its uniqueness, the UN has been discredited by failings and scandals. The organization has demonstrated that it is not always able to promptly adapt to rapidly changing global political realities. In this regard, the UN is often criticized for its inefficiency, undemocratic, the lack of attention to the problems of developing countries, bureaucracy, overstaffing and excessive budget.On behalf of the UN have also been linked, and some high-profile financial scandals. In one of them, the Program for Iraq â€Å"Oil for Food program, was involved even Kojo Annan (Kofi Annans son). American Commission of Inquiry program of assistance to Saddams Iraq Oil for Food has revealed the involvement of UN officials for corruption by the regime of Saddam Hussein. In addition, the number of peacekeepers and employees were indicted for sexual crimes against refugees. According to RBC daily interviewed experts inflation scandals plaguing the UN is being targeted, and above all they a re interested in the U.S. who do not want to reckon with the UN as an independent player in the international arena. Therefore, Washington was determined to discredit the organization. The new regulations the UN is an attempt to keep the organization itself and restore its shaken credibility in the world. However, it is unlikely to lead to desired results: in its current form, this organization is not able to solve the tasks assigned to it. All in all, despite the scandals and disadvantages, it can be said that the United Nations is an effective institution, which has been proven many times by its actions. The organization has many goals for the sake of the society all over the world, among them are: To maintain international peace and security and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and suppress acts of aggression or other breaches of peace and by peaceful means in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment and settlement of international disputes or situations which may lead to a breach of peace; To develop friendly relations from nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms to all, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, and To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations and the achievement of common goals.

The Never Changing Society Essay -- essays research papers

Society is constantly changing but there are ideas that are embedded into society that still remain. The idea to survive and the idea to become better than your previous are still present. There exist one idea that correlates to a very strong impulse that controls our daily happening and our lives, the idea of selfishness. Everyone does something for something in return. In our present day society, selfishness is more evident when it comes to the matter of greed. Large corporations will put on different facades to attract different types of people to buy their product. This is core behind the idea of advertising. People change because society changes and therefore their interests change as well. To survive, companies need to appeal to the new interests by focusing their product to the new market of people. If you cannot appeal to the new interest your company will surely be doomed. Take for instance the car companies of the 1920’s. Ford first developed its Model-T car and had a monopoly over the car industry even if they all came in one color, black. Then, Chevrolet came out with its cars, which had different colors; Ford had then lost a large amount of its business to Chevrolet and was then no longer the leader in the car industry. Studebaker was another successful car company with decent cars and a fair amount of supporters but when the market changed and the company could not keep up with it, it failed and went out of business. In today’s present state, the car industry is mainly selling sport utility vehicles or SUV’s for short, but they are still selling the same thing, cars. At present, our economy is doing well so that is why many people are purchasing SUV’s. They are expensive and they waste a lot of gas. Not quite practical unless there is enough money to spend on it. Back in the 1980’s when the economy was not doing so well, smaller cars that used less gas and were cost cheaper sold a great deal more. The compact sedans of the 1980’s are now not in style anymore and not very many people are purchasing compacts and sports cars anymore either. Even though sports cars are flashy and expensive, it is more common than SUV’s were so people wanted something different. SUV’s are more high profile and they are like a trophy of how much money a person has. Nissan knew that sedans were not selling but it wanted to change the view and show everyone that th... ...and power and believe that the other cars are made for women. In the end, no matter what technique is used, it is the same idea just with a different image. Nissan is selling cars no matter how they advertise it just like Marlboro is selling cigarettes. The key is that companies need to change their strategies with the times. Time changes people and therefore if the companies can evolve with the times to fit the need of the people. This system is similar to that of the idea in nature that the fittest will survive. There are individuals who believe that only the strongest can survive but it is not true, something can be the strongest but if it is not fit to survive in the particular atmosphere then it will not survive. The same goes for the business. If the company lacks the skill to survive in the particular atmosphere then it will not, no matter how strong the company could have been, if it is not fit to perform in a particular environment, it will not. Advertising can only blur the image of the product so that it looks more appealing. No matt er how the intricate the illusion or how big the claims, the company is still selling a product that hopefully the consumer wants to buy.

Jacksonian Democrats Essay examples -- essays research papers

Jacksonian Democrats viewed themselves as the guardians of the United States Constitution, political democracy, individual liberty, and equality of economic opportunity. In light of the following documents and your knowledge of the 1820's and the 1830's, to what extent do you agree with the Jacksonian's view of themselves. Unlike previous presidents, Andrew Jackson represented the common men. He and his followers did not support the aristocrats, but instead favored the interests of farmers and urban workers. When they gained power, the Jacksonian Democrats brought about great advances in creating a more democratic and economically equal society. One of the most important changes that Jackson brought was a much more democratic society. You no longer had to be a rich landowner to be allowed to vote. Most of the states removed any religious or property qualifications for holding office. The number of voters increased nearly by seven times during Jackson's presidency. By 1832, nearly all states adopted a new system for choosing for choosing its electors. Before Jackson's presidency, the electors were chosen by state legislatures. Now all the states in the Union, except South Carolina, had adopted a more democratic method of allowing voters to choose their state's electors. Also, during Jackson's era, many state and local officials were elected to office, instead of being appointed. This gave the voters more control of their local government, and increased participatio...

Schizophrenia: Effects on the Brain :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Schizophrenia: Effects on the Brain Schizophrenia is a disease that affects the brain. It alters brain chemistry and brain form to produce the different behavior in those afflicted with the problem. It appears that these alterations change the inherent I-function in each individual. Loss of important functions associated with this piece of the greater nervous system box is found in these people. To understand why this occurs, it is necessary to have some background knowledge of what schizophrenia does to a person's brain. The conclusion of altered I-function can be drawn as this information is presented. The symptoms of the disease also aid in the explanation. Schizophrenia results in varied and abnormal responses compared to those of normal, healthy individuals. The brain of individuals with the disease endures such changes that their basic functions and operations are altered. Schizophrenia is an internal disease caused by fundamental organizational differences in the brain. It begins to be noticed in a person's late teens through twenties. Signs of it can be seen from early childhood and it is now being hypothesized that it is actually present during adolescence (1). Since this hypothesis extends to fetal development, brain formation in the earliest stages is effected. The alteration of pathways and deviation of neurotransmitters from normal arrangement is believed to be a factor behind the affliction. The brain of these individuals forms differently. Neurotransmitters are believed to misfire altering the chemical balance of the brain causing behavioral problems. There are deficits in cortical and subcortical cognitive processes (5). There are also enlarged ventricles in the brain causing further impairment of ability (3). When the disease is present there are certain symptoms that are easily recognizable. They fall into three categories overt, negative, and positive. The overt symptoms are delusions, hallucinations, alteration of the senses, inability to sort and then respond appropriately to incoming sensations, an altered sense of self, and changes in behavior (2). The negative symptoms are emotional flatness, inability to start or follow through on activities, brief speech lacking content, and lack of pleasure or interest in life (2). All of these include an inhibition on processing information and further imply a differentiation in the normal self. The basic information above provides a solid background to understanding the disease and already possible problems to a person's I-function can be seen. The afflicted person's lack of knowledge concerning the disease suggests a hindrance to the I-function.

National Festivals Essay

Festival is a celebration of life. Festivals bring peace and joy to the masses. They break the monotony of life. Indian festivals are numerous. A festival is a celebration, entertainment or series of performances of a certain kind, often held periodically. Festivals break the monotony of life. They bring peace and joy to the masses. All nations have their religious and cultural festivals. Indian festivals are numerous. They are harmonious, rich, varied and colorful. Indian festivals are varied as the people themselves.They are of three types- national, religious and seasonal. The first type of festivals. i.e. national festivals are celebrated with great patriotic favour These days have been declared as national holidays and are celebrated in all parts of the country with a lot of enthusiasm. The capital, New Delhi, is the seat of national celebrations on such occasions. It witnesses one of the most majestic parades on the Republic Day. These festivals include Republic Day, Independence Day, Gandhi Jayanit etc.. The second type of festivals depict the religious association of the people.Most Indian festivals have their origin either in religions or in the myths and legends of popular faiths. Some are contend with the memory of venerable men and events and are, therefore, commemorative in nature. They are intended to keep alive the memory of those events and personalities and inspire people to emulate their examples. These festivals include Guru Parav, Holi, Lohir, Buddhapurnima, Mahavir Jayanit, Dussehra, Diwali, Janmastami, Chath, Navaratri, Eid,. Third ones mark the change of season.These festival include Bhi, Baisakhi, Onam, Pongal, Basant Panchanmi etc.

PRODUCTION OPERATIONS & MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OF LABSA Essay

Sulphonation – The Process Most electrophilic substitution reactions are irreversible but sulfonation is an exception. Treatment of benzene with â€Å"oleum† (a solution of SO3 in concentrated sulfuric acid) will give the sulfonic acid, the electrophilic species being sulfur trioxide which is Lewis acidic. Fig – 1 Sulphonation : Benzene equation The sulfonic acid can be converted back by treatment with hot aqueous acid. The reason for this reversibility is the fact that the Wheland intermediate is overall neutral and therefore more stable than other, positively charged intermediates. Hence, under forcing reaction conditions, the energy difference in progressing in either the forward or backward sense from the Wheland intermediate is proportionately smaller compared to the barrier to activation and hence discrimination is lost. Fig – 2 Progress of Reaction against Energy This makes the SO3H a useful directing group if it is desired to carry our selective ortho– substitution of a monosubstituted benzene possessing an ortho/para– activating group. Under normal circumstances, para– substitution would dominate, despite the statistical favouring of the ortho– positions due to steric hindrance of the original substituent. Initial sulfonation para– gives a Disubstituted benzene in which both substituents direct to the same position. Subsequent directed electrophilic substitution and removal of the sulfonic acid group gives theortho– disubstituted product. Process Involved In the Manufacture of LABSA Fig 3 – Flowchart of the process behind the production of LABSA. The manufacturing of LABSA at Sasol gulf is a continuous process. An interval of 1 day after a period of 20-21 days for the purpose of shut-down and start-up is essential for maintenance purposes. The key reactions involved in the formation of LABSA are as follows: †¢Air Drying †¢Sulphur Melting – Ignition of sulphur (S) to sulphur dioxide (SO2) †¢SO3 Production – Oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide (SO3) using catalyst vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) under optimum temperature. †¢Film Sulphonation – Reaction of Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) with Sulphur trioxide to yield the end product LABSA. †¢Ageing & Hydrolysis †¢Gas Separation & Gas Scrubbing – Separation of LABSA from unreacted gases. Air Drying The air taken from outside is compressed and dehumidified by means of the following units: 1)Intermediate Cooling Unit. 2)Silica gel Dehumidifying Tower. The cooling has the purpose to remove the humidity from the air, up to a saturation humidity of 2 degree Celsius & also to convey low temperature air to the dehumidifying tower, thus favoring the water absorption in the silica gel. The silica gel air drying has the object to reduce to very low values (dew point -60 approx.) the moisture content of air intended for the sulfur combustion, & then for conversion. This reduces to acceptable values the oleum quantity produced in the conversion unit, which depends directly to the quantity of water contained in the air. Working The air filtered is sucked by the compressor that sends the process air to the refrigerating group. This unit removes the compression heat by water & moreover cools the air to 2 degree Celsius through the intermediate medium cooling unit which is kept at constant temperature. The equipment for air drying is a vertical cylindrical vessel, which is horizontally divided in  two parts by a partition containing insulating material. The two silica gel layers are placed on nets; 2 spaces are left free above and below such layers for air inlet and outlet respectively. On the plates, at the level of both silica gel layer, two light glasses are located to check visually their conditions. Some silica gel indicator is placed near the sight glasses, changing its color accordingto the quantity of absorbed water; thus saturating with water, it changes blue to pink. Fig 4 – Boiler to produce and supply steam. Characteristics of Silica Gel Appearance – white color, granules of 3-6 mm approx. Bulk Density: 700kg/dm3 approx The regeneration is carried out by heating with air at 150 degree Celsius. A checking about the effective regeneration is made by verifying the Silica gel indicator through the sight glasses, as well as by verifying the outlet temp., of the regeneration air on the recording thermometer. When the regeneration is accomplished the silica gel mass has a temperature quite near 150 degree Celsius. Therefore it is necessary to cool the silica gel thus allowing it to adsorb the humidity of the air crossing it. Note – The four way valves are provided with a drive by pneumatic cylinders which are remote controlled energizing some solenoid valve suitably. Air drying and cooling Air that is utilized in the production of LABSA has to be cooled first and then dried to ensure its feasibility for further reactions. Air is cooled by passing it through a heat exchanger containing the coolant mono-ethylene glycol; at a temperature of 0 to -2 degree Celsius. The coolant ensures condensation of air to around 5 degree Celsius. After cooling air to the required temperature it has to be dried to remove traces of moisture present in it. For this purpose air is passed through a cylinder filled with silica gel. The silica-gel brings the dew point of the water in the air down to stay -40 degrees Celsius. This means that the air is dry as if the air was cooled down to -40 degrees Celsius. In practice two cylinders with silica-gel are used; one for drying the air, the other is reconditioned. In general the changing of the cylinders is done automatically. Fig 5 – Air Drying Process Fig 6 – Glycol Tower In order to remove the compression heat and to condense the moisture, the air is first cooled by cooling water and then by a glycol solution in the glycol tower. The air flow is then conveyed at a constant temperature (less than 5â„Æ') to the silica gel dryers. Sulphur Melting Sulphur is melted to allow Sulphur that has been acquired has to be melted prior to its ignition. This is done by heating it in the melter at temperatures of 135â„Æ' to 145â„Æ'. If the temperature exceeds 145â„Æ' it would result in vaporisation of sulphur while temperatures less than 135â„Æ' would be insufficient to melt sulphur. Therefore a temperature of 140 is maintained to prevent wastage of sulphur due to the above mentioned causes. Fig 7–Sulphur Melting Tank. The solid sulphur is melted and filtered to avoid the pump valves clogging and then fed to the sulphur burner by a proportioning pump. The viscosity of molten sulphur is minimum between 135â„Æ' to 140 â„Æ'. Fig 8 – Viscosity Of Sulphur Molten sulphur is fed under mass control by means of a mass flow meter. The pump and the relevant piping are steam heated in order to to keep the temperature constant and to minimize sulphur viscosity. Fig 9 – Sulphur Burning SOâ‚Æ' Production The oxidation reaction of sulphur dioxide and trioxide is exothermic and heat produced by it is quite sufficient to keep the catalyst layers at the required at the required temp. to obtain a good conversion progress. In order to get the best efficiency, the gas inlet temperature in the first catalyst layer has to be about 420 degree Celsius. To start the reaction, the catalyst layers of the first & second stage of the conversion tower have to be brought to the necessary temperature. This is reached by preheating with hot air and the upper part of the catalyst tower is heated upto a temperature of 400-420 degree Celsius. Fig 10 – Catalyst Bed Sulphur Dioxide & Sulphur Trioxide Production The sulphur combustion furnace has been designed for this special purpose. In the furnace, the sulphur is fed through a pipe and falls on a surface of refractory balls, while the combustion air is supplied in counter current, thus obtaining the complete combustion of sulphur without its spraying through a nozzle; which might often clog owing to sulphur impurities. This system is quite simple; it does not require any maintenance and the gas composition does not change. The temperature of the gas at the burner outlet is around 700 degree Celsius (corresponding approximately to a SO2 concentration of 7% by volume). Thereafter a heat exchanger cools the gas so that it reaches the conversion tower at the required temperature. The conversion tower is composed of three layers of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) catalyst. The gas, passing from a layer to next one, crosses a heat exchanger to take the gas temperature to optimum conversion values on every stage. In order to allow quick startup, a preheating system has been  provided. The main characteristics of Ballestra pre-heating system have been provided: âž ¢No electric pre-heater is required because if it were used, being in the presence of SO3, it would be corroded very quickly. âž ¢Moreover, with Ballestra system there is no need to either cut off or regulate values in the circuit of conversion l ines, which should operate a temperature of about 500 degree Celsius in the presence SO2 / SO3, thus being easily corroded. âž ¢The gas temperature is of course too high to be suitable for sulphonation; therefore some heat exchangers in the series are used to cool the gas down to proper sulphonation temperature. The hot air coming from SO3 coolers is utilized for silica gel regeneration.[6] Fig 11 – SO2 / SO3 Production Film Sulphonation This group is composed by a film reactor, multi-tube type, having dimensions and number of tubes proportional to the plant capacity. The sulphonation gas is automatically fed on the reactor top and distributed in part strictly equal on each of the pipes composing the reactor. The raw material to be sulphonated is fed in co-current with the gas. Outside the reaction tubes in the reactor jacket the cooling water circulates in co-current with the film, thus allowing a control of the reaction temperature by heat removing. The distribution of the gas and the product to be sulphonated is designed in order to ensure a constant ratio between the two phases, inside each reaction tube. The sulphonated or sulphated product, coming out of the reactor is suitably degassed, aged and stabilized according to the fed raw material; and fed to the neutralization unit. In this connection the Ballestra sulphonation / sulphation system by film reactor has great advantages towards the other existing systems on the market since in the case of power failure an emergency system, included in the supply, avoids any damage to the product and the necessity of cleaning the reactor before resuming operation. This system can be also used during plant startup: the material to be sulphonated is fed and recycled to the reactor until optimum SO2-SO3 conversion is reached. Main Reactor Fig 12 – Top view of the Reactor Fig 13 – Bottom Nozzles Of the Reactor This SO3 is sent to the reactor where it reacts with Linear Alkyl Benzene. Due to presence of some water vapours in air some oleum is also formed. This should be avoided as it can cause blockage. The reactor has small tubes in which the SO3 passes and the LAB passes through its sides. The main reaction takes place at bottom of these tubes and during maintenance these tubes are thoroughly cleaned because if the LAB leaks to the centre part then the reaction will take place there only and no SO3 will pass through. Then this mixture of LABSA (desired product), LAB, SO3 and a mixture of other waste materials including oleum is sent to a separator. The liquid product is sent to the aging vessel and the gases are sent to cyclone. Fig 14 – Sulphonation Plant Arrangement Ageing & Hydrolysis This is used to stabilize the sulphonated DDB. It is composed by an ageing unit and stabilizer. The product after being sulphonated overflows into the bottom of the ageing unit. It is then conveyed into the stabilizer together with water. Afterwards it is transferred with the help of a pump to the neutralization unit. Fig 15 – Ageing Vessel Gas Seperation Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air (or gas) stream, without the use of filters, through vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of solids and fluids. Here a high speed rotating air-flow is established within a cylindrical or conical container called a cyclone. Air flows in a spiral pattern, beginning at the top (wide end) of the cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) end before exiting the cyclone in a straight stream through the center of the cyclone and out the top. Larger (denser) particles in the rotating air stream have too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the air stream and strike the outside wall, falling then to the bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed. In a conical system, as the rotating air-flow moves towards the narrow end of the cyclone the rotational radius of the air stream is reduced, separating smaller and smaller particles from the stream. The cyclone geometry, together with air flow rate, defines the cut point of the cyclone. This is the size of particle that will be removed from the air stream with a 50% efficiency. Particles larger than the cut point will be removed with a greater efficiency and smaller particles with a lower efficiency. The liquid product and reactants which still have to react are sent to the aging vessel but the product in the form of vapour and gases are sent to Electrostatic Precipitator. Fig 16 – Gas Splitting Gas Scrubbing / Exhaust Gas Treatment The unit is designed to treat exhaust gas stream coming from the sulphonation reactor before being sent to the atmosphere in order to remove any possible organic, unreacted SOâ‚Æ' traces and unconverted SOâ‚‚. The exhausted gas coming from the reactor pass through a cyclone which provides to separate the acid mist before getting into the electrostatic precipitator and SO2 scrubber column. Fig 17 – Exhaust Gas Treatment In the electrostatic precipitator the organic substances and unreacted SO3 are separated and eliminated. The residual unconverted SO2 is absorbed in the scrubbing column in which a water and caustic soda solution is continuously recycled. The gas stream is contacted with a controlled stream of fresh organic raw material. Fig 18– Electrostatic Precipitator Functionality Details Fig 19 – Electro Static Precipitator Construction Details An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. The LABSA is separated and sent to the ageing vessel. Types of Heat Exchangers Shell and Tube heat exchanger Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned etc. Shell and Tube heat exchangers are typically used for high pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 °C. This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape. There are several thermal design features that are to be taken into account when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers. These include: †¢Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered. †¢Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure: oThere is enough room for corrosion oThat flow-induced vibration has resistance oAxial strength oAbility to easily stock spare parts cost Sometimes the wall thickness is determined by the maximum pressure differential across the wall. †¢Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as possible. However, there are many limitations for this, including the space available at the site where it is going to be used and the need to ensure that there are tubes available in lengths that are twice the required length (so that the tubes can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, it has to be remembered that lone, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace. †¢Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e. the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25 times the tubes’ outside diameter LAS/LABSA ( Linear Alkyl Benzene Suplhonic Acid ) – The Product Description of LAS Linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid is the largest-volume synthetic surfactant because of its relatively low cost, good performance, the fact that it can be dried to a stable powder and the biodegradable environmental friendliness as it has straight chain. LAS is an anionic surfactants with molecules characterized by a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic group. Alpha-olefin sulfonates (AOS) alkyl sulfates (AS) are also examples of commercial anionic surfactants. They are nonvolatile compounds produced by sulfonation. LAS are complex mixtures of homologues of different alkyl chain lengths (C10 to C13 or C14) and phenyl positional isomers of 2 to 5-phenyl in proportions  dictated by the starting materials and reaction conditions, each containing an aromatic ring sulfonated at the para position and attached to a linear alkyl chain at any position with the exception of terminal one (1-phenyl). The properties of LAS differ in physical and chemical properties according to the alkyl chain length, resulting in formulations for various applications. The starting material LAB (linear alkylbenzene) is produced by the alkylation of benzene with n-paraffins in the presence of hydrogen fluoride (HF) or aluminium chloride (AlCl3) as a catalyst. LAS is produced by the sulfonation of LAB with oleum in batch reactors. Other sulfonation alternative reagents are sulfuric acid, diluted sulfur trioxide, chlorosulfonic acid and sulfamic acid on falling film reactors. LAS are then neutralized to the desired salt (sodium, ammonium, calcium, potassium, and triethanolamine salts). Surfactants are widely used in the industry needed to improve contact between polar and non-polar media such as between oil and water or between water and minerals. MASS DENSITY AT 20 DEGREES C : ~ 1.070 g/cm3 VISCOSITY AT 20 DEGREES C : ~ 1500 – 2000 mPa.s. MELTING RANGE : ~ – 10 DEGREES C. BOILING POINT : ~ 315 DEGREES C. VAPOUR PRESSURE at 20 DEGREES c : Below 0.15 (0.001 mm Hg). FLASH POINT (PMcc) : >200 DEGREES C. DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE : > 100 DEGREES C. Ph : ~ 2. Applications of LAS Alkylbenzene sulfonic acid, as the raw material of detergent, is used to produce alkylbenzene sulfonic acid sodium (LAS), which has the performances of cleaning, wetting, foaming, emulsifying and dispersing, etc. The rate of biodegradation is more than 90%. The product is widely used for producing various detergents and emulsifiers for agricultural herbicides and in emulsion polymerization. It is mainly used to produce household detergents such as washing powder, detergent of dishware, detergent of light or hard dirt, cleaner of textile industry, dyeing assistant, degreaser of plating and leather making industry, and the deinking agent of paper-making industry, etc. Characteristics †¢Good Surface active properties †¢Low cost surfactant for detergents †¢Easy processing into dried powders †¢Desirable solubility in both liquid and powder formulation †¢Biodegradable †¢Compatible with other surface active agents Sales Specifications APPEARANCEViscous Light Brown liquid ACTIVE MATTER96.0% min ACID VALUE180 – 190 FREE OIL1.5% max WATER1.0% max COLOR, KLETTE50 max (5% Sol. pH=7, 40mm cell) FREE SULFURIC ACID1.5% max Advantages †¢Cost effective, anionic surfactant. †¢Biodegradable. †¢Due to its stable foam, suitable for detergent applications in combination with other surfactants. †¢Compatible with enzymes and builders. †¢Outstanding performance with other anionic surfactants due to its synergistic effect. †¢Consumes less alkali for neutralisation. †¢Ideal for liquid detergent application due to high solubility and low salt content. Packaging & Transportation LAB First the truck is parked in the heavy loading station directly under a valve. Laborers enter the truck and fix metal rods in grooves near the door. Then a cardboard perimeter is set up in order to provide support. A flexi-bag is spread out on the bottom of the container, above and within the cardboard perimeter. A hose is connected to the valve and to the flexi-bag. The initial reading is taken from the main LAB tank. The flexi-bag can withstand 20-25 tons of LAB. Calculations are carried out to transfer an approx. 20 tons. The meter reading must reduce by 52cm. Fig 20 – Flexi Bags within cardboard perimeter Sulphonic Acid The sulphonic acid is corrosive in nature and therefore requires a vehicle with a pre-fitted tanker. The tanker is made of a special material (commonly stainless steel) Also the tank must be able to keep the sulphonic acid at a desirable temperature. Fig 21 – Fitted Tank LABSA LABSA is packaged into plastic drums and then transported. Each drum contains 210kg of the product. Sasol buys second hand drums in order to cut costs. Once the drums are loaded with LABSA on a wooden platform a forklift will move them to the storage shed. At the time of loading the forklift will carry these drums to a loading station with an adjustable ramp. The forklift will carry the containers into the truck and load them there. Fig 22 – Plastic Drums for packaging Analysis Every two hours, regular analysis of the product is carried out to make sure the quality of the product is maintained. A sample of the product is taken in a beaker and taken to the analysis room. Color Klett Determination A Klett colorimeter allows light to pass through and determines the colour Klett of the substance. The beaker is put on the colorimeter and the value of the color Klett is obtained. Lesser the color Klett, better the quality of the product. The standard value for Klett is around 50%(maximum). Here at Sasol, it ranges from 5-10% and is therefore great in quality. Required Equipments: †¢Klett Colorimeter †¢Blue Filter No. 42 with 400-465mm wavelength range †¢Pair of cells with 40mm path length †¢Balance Required Reagents: †¢Ethanol 99.9% GPR †¢Methanol GPR †¢Propan-2-ol ( Isopropyl alcohol ) GPR †¢Distilled water Procedure: †¢Prepare solvent of ethanol 99.99%, methanol, propan-2-ol or distilled water or a mix of all. †¢Weigh 5g of active substance and dilute with a weighed amount of solvent so that a solution of 5% m/m is prepared for color measurement. †¢In case of 5% m/n color measurement , weigh 5g of active substance, then times the volume of solvent required by relevant solvent density and weigh solvent. †¢Mix upto complete dissolution. †¢Fill 40mm path length cell (clean and dry) with mixture and other cell as reference cell. †¢Colorimeter must be switched on 15 mins prior to the test. Acid value determination After finding the color Klett, the sample of the product is then titrated with ethanol, drop by drop after adding the indicator. Through this, the amount of ethanol required to reach the n point is noted and the acid level of the product is calculated. It should be approx. 180. If the acid value is higher or lower than the required value, the air flow rate is adjusted and analysis is carried out till the desired acid value is obtained. Required equipments: †¢250ml conical flask †¢10ml Burette †¢Lab analytic balance reading upto 3 decimal places Required Reagents: †¢Distilled water †¢Sodium Hydroxide Volumetric Solution †¢Phenolphthalein †¢Ethanol This method covers determination of acid value for sulphonic acid, however it can also be used for pure fatty acids. Procedure: †¢Weigh accurately about 2g of sulphonic acid into the conical flask and note the weight. †¢Add 25ml of ethanol and mix well to ensure the sample is dissolved completely. †¢Titrate with NaOH solution using phenolphthalein until the solution retains a faint pink colour. Note T1. Calculation: †¢Acid Value = ( T1 x Molarity of NaOH x 56.1 ) / Wt †¢Free Acid % = ( T1 x Molarity of NaOH x titrated acid molecular weight ) [10] Conclusion In a nutshell, the previous month at Sasol has been very productive in terms of the knowledge gained regarding the manufacturing operations of the LABSA plant in Dubai, UAE. Future Scope This is a detailed report on: Production Operations and Manufacturing Processes of LABSA. It is highly informative on processes such as Air Drying, SOâ‚Æ' Production, SOâ‚Æ' Treatment, Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonation etc. The report can be used to bring about the following functionality: †¢Set up companies †¢Set up detergent raw material supply †¢Improve plant production quality †¢Reduce production costs References [1] www.wikipedia.com [2] www.sasol.com [3] www.uaeincorp.com [4] www.users.ox.ac.uk [5] Sasol Gulf – Operation Manual [6] Sulphonation Technology in the Detergent Industry by W. Herman de Groot [7] www.lasinfo.org [8] www.mixmedicine.com [9] www.chemicalland21.com [10] Test Method Control Room File